Abstract
The effect of the Adapted-Coping with Stress (A-CWS) intervention on social support coping was examined, using a randomized controlled trial design. The participants were 410 ninth-grade students (ages 14 to 16 years and mostly African American) living in low-resourced neighborhoods. Participants were randomly assigned 1:1 to either the A-CWS intervention or a standard care control condition. All participants were assessed at their schools before implementation of the intervention, at intervention completion, and again at 6- and 12-month post-intervention. Engagement in social support coping was examined in both intention-to-treat and treatment-as-received samples (i.e., intervention participants who attended at least 12 A-CWS treatment sessions and participants in the standard care control condition), using latent growth models. In intention-to-treat analyses, no significant treatment effects were identified. In treatment-as-received analyses, results revealed a significant association between social support coping and treatment condition; levels of social support coping decreased over time in the control condition, but they remained relatively stable in the treatment condition. The results indicate adequate intervention adherence and efficacy of the A-CWS to sustain social support coping within a sample of youth at high risk for stress exposure and associated disorders.
Clinical Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT0395445
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data used in this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Al-Khattab, O., Oruche, U., Perkins, D., & Draucker, C. (2016). How African American adolescents manage depression: Being with others. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 22(5), 387–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390316657391
Allen, S. F., Pfefferbaum, B., Nitiéma, P., Pfefferbaum, R. L., Houston, J. B., McCarter, G. S., & Gray, S. R. (2015). Resilience and coping intervention with children and adolescents in at-risk neighborhoods. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 21(2), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2015.1072014
Anderson, R. E., McKenny, M., Mitchell, A., Koku, L., & Stevenson, H. C. (2017). EMBRacing racial stress and trauma: Preliminary feasibility and coping responses of a racial socialization intervention. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(1), 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798417732930
Barrera, M., Berkel, C., & Castro, F. G. (2016). Directions for the advancement of culturally adapted preventive interventions: Local adaptations, engagement, and sustainability. Prevention Science, 18(6), 640–648. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0705-9
Brady, S. S., Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D. B., & Tolan, P. H. (2007). Adaptive coping reduces the impact of community violence exposure on violent behavior among African American and Latino male adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(1), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9164-x
Brenner, A. B., Zimmerman, M. A., Bauermeister, J. A., & Caldwell, C. H. (2013). Neighborhood context and perceptions of stress over time: An ecological model of neighborhood stressors and intrapersonal and interpersonal resources. American Journal of Community Psychology, 51(3–4), 544–556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-013-9571-9
Browning, C. R., Calder, C. A., Ford, J. L., Boettner, B., Smith, A. L., & Haynie, D. (2016). Understanding racial differences in exposure to violent areas: Integrating survey, smartphone, and administrative data resources. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 669(1), 41–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716216678167
Chicago Data Portal. (2018). Crimes–2001 to present [Data file]. Retrieved May 24, 2019 from https://data.cityofchicago.org/Public-Safety/Crimes-2001-to-present/ijzp-q8t2
Clarke, G. (1998). Intervention fidelity in the psychosocial prevention and treatment of adolescent depression. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 17(2), 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1300/j005v17n02_03
Clarke, G. N., Hornbrook, M., Lynch, F., Polen, M., Gale, J., Beardslee, W., O’Connor, E., & Seeley, J. (2001). A randomized trial of a group cognitive intervention for preventing depression in adolescent offspring of depressed parents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(12), 1127. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.12.1127
Clarke, G. N., & Lewinson, P. M. (1995). Instructor’s manual for the adolescent coping with stress course. Oregon Health Sciences University.
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.87
Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., Bettis, A. H., Watson, K. H., Gruhn, M. A., Dunbar, J. P., Williams, E., & Thigpen, J. C. (2017). Coping, emotion regulation, and psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis and narrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 143(9), 939–991. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000110
Cooper, S. M., Brown, C., Metzger, I., Clinton, Y., & Guthrie, B. (2013). Racial discrimination and African American adolescents’ adjustment: Gender variation in family and community social support, promotive and protective factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9608-y
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., Maszk, P., Holmgren, R., & Suh, K. (1996). The relations of regulation and emotionality to problem behavior in elementary school children. Development and Psychopathology, 8(1), 141–162. https://doi.org/10.1017/s095457940000701x
Farooqui, S. (2016). Chicago community area indicators, 2014. Retrieved May 24, 2019 from Social Impact Research Center, Illinois Poverty Report website: http://ilpovertyreport.org/sites/default/files/uploads/ACS_2010_2014_FINAL_DATABOOK_Chicago%20Neighborhood%20Indicators-Update.pdf
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2015). 2014 crime in the United States. Retrieved May 24, 2019 from https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2014/crime-in-the-u.s.-2014/offenses-known-to-law-enforcement/violent-crime
Fields, L., & Prinz, R. J. (1997). Coping and adjustment during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 17(8), 937–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(97)00033-0
Garmy, P., Berg, A., & Clausson, E. K. (2015). A qualitative study exploring adolescents’ experiences with a school-based mental health program. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 1074. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-2368-z
Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Burrow, A. L., & Cunningham, J. A. (2012). A cultural-asset framework for investigating successful adaptation to stress in African American youth. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 264–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00236.x
Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Gipson, P., Mance, G., & Grant, K. E. (2008). Coping patterns of African American adolescents: A confirmatory factor analysis and cluster analysis of the Children’s Coping Strategies Checklist. Psychological Assessment, 20(1), 10–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.20.1.10
Grant, K. E., O'Koon, J. H., Davis, T. H., Roache, N. A., Poindexter, L. M., Armstrong, Minden, J. A., & McIntosh, J. M. (2000). Protective factors affecting low-income urban African American youth exposed to stress. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20(4), 388–417. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431600020004002
Graves, K. Y., & Nowakowski, A. C. H. (2017). Childhood socioeconomic status and stress in late adulthood: A longitudinal approach to measuring allostatic load. Global Pediatric Health, 4, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333794x17744950
Griggs, S., Ratner, H. H., Hannigan, J. H., Delaney-Black, V., & Chiodo, L. M. (2019). Violence exposure, conflict, and health outcomes in inner-city African American adolescents. Nursing Forum, 54(4), 513–525. https://doi.org/10.1111/nuf.12365
Hammack, P. L., Richards, M. H., Luo, Z., Edlynn, E. S., & Roy, K. (2004). Social support factors as moderators of community violence exposure among inner-city African American young adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(3), 450–462. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_3
Heerde, & Hemphill, S. A. (2018). Examination of associations between informal help-seeking behavior, social support, and adolescent psychosocial outcomes: A meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 47, 44–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2017.10.001
Heyes, S. B., Jih, Y., Block, P., Hiu, C., Holmes, E. A., & Lau, J. Y. (2015). Relationship reciprocation modulates resource allocation in adolescent social networks: Developmental effects. Child Development, 86(5), 1489–1506. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12396
Howard, D. E. (1996). Searching for resilience among African-American youth exposed to community violence: Theoretical issues. Journal of Adolescent Health, 18(4), 254–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/1054-139x(95)00230-p
Jenness, J. L., Peverill, M., King, K. M., Hankin, B. L., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2019). Dynamic associations between stressful life events and adolescent internalizing psychopathology in a multiwave longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(6), 596–609. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000450
Lemberger, M. E., & Clemens, E. V. (2012). Connectedness and self-regulation as constructs of the student success skills program in inner-city African American elementary school students. Journal of Counseling and Development, 90(4), 450–458. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2012.00056.x
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1996). Adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts: Prevalence, risk factors, and clinical implications. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 3(1), 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.1996.tb00056.x
Lindsey, M. A., Joe, S., & Nebbitt, V. (2010). Family matters: The role of mental health stigma and social support on depressive symptoms and subsequent help seeking among African American boys. Journal of Black Psychology, 36(4), 458–482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798409355796
Liu, J., Mustanski, B., Dick, D., Bolland, J., & Kertes, D. A. (2016). Risk and protective factors for comorbid internalizing and externalizing problems among economically disadvantaged African American youth. Development and Psychopathology, 29(3), 1043–1056. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579416001012
Mowatt, H. S. (2017). School-based implementation of a prevention of depression program with urban at-risk adolescents (doctoral dissertation). Retrieved September 14, 2020 from https://knowledge.library.iup.edu/etd/1551
Patterson, J. M., & Mccubbin, H. I. (1987). Adolescent coping style and behaviors: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Adolescence, 10(2), 163–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-1971(87)80086-6
Paul, G. L. (1967). Outcome research in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 31, 109–118
Reynolds, W. M. (1988). Suicidal ideation questionnaire: Professional manual. Lutz, FL: PAR
Richards, M., Romero, E., Deane, K., Carey, D., Zakaryan, A., Quimby, D., Gross, I., Thomas, A., Velsor-Friedrich, B., Burns, M., & Patel, N. (2015). Civic engagement curriculum: A strengths-based intervention serving African American youth in a context of toxic stress. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 9(1), 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-015-0062-z
Robinson, W. L., Case, M. H., Whipple, C. R., Gooden, A. S., Lopez-Tamayo, R., Lambert, S. F., & Jason, L. A. (2016). Culturally grounded stress reduction and suicide prevention for African American adolescents. Practice Innovations, 1(2), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/pri0000020
Robinson, W. L., Droege, J. R., Case, M. H., & Jason, L. A. (2015). Reducing stress and preventing anxiety in African American adolescents: A culturally-grounded approach. Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.7728/0602201503
Rose, T., McDonald, A., Mach, T. V., Witherspoon, D. P., & Lambert, S. (2019). Patterns of social connectedness and psychosocial wellbeing among African American and Caribbean Black adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(11), 2271–2291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01135-7
Saha, R., Huebner, E. S., Hills, K. J., Malone, P. S., & Valois, R. F. (2014). Social coping and life satisfaction in adolescents. Social Indicators Research, 115(1), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0217-3
Sanchez, Y. M., Lambert, S. F., & Cooley-Strickland, M. (2013). Adverse life events, coping and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in urban African American youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(1), 38–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9590-4
Scott, L. D., & House, L. E. (2005). Relationship of distress and perceived control to coping with perceived racial discrimination among Black youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 31(3), 254–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798405278494
Seaton, E. (2010). The influence of cognitive development and perceived racial discrimination on the psychological well-being of African American youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 694–703. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9438-4
Smith-Bynum, M. A., Lambert, S. F., English, D., & Ialongo, N. S. (2014). Associations between trajectories of perceived racial discrimination and psychological symptoms among African American adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4pt1), 1049–1065. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579414000571
Ten Have, T. R., Normand, S. T., Marcus, S. M., Hendricks Brown, C., Lavori, P., & Duan, N. (2008). Intent-to-treat vs. non-intent-to-treat analyses under treatment non-adherence in mental health randomized trials. Psychiatry Annals, 38(12), 772–783. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20081201-10
Thomas, A. J., Carey, D., Prewitt, K. R., Romero, E., Richards, M., & Velsor-Friedrich, B. (2012). African-American youth and exposure to community violence: Supporting change from the inside. Journal for Social Action in Counseling & Psychology, 4(1), 54–68. https://doi.org/10.33043/jsacp.4.1.54-68
Tolan, P. H., Gorman-Smith, D., Henry, D., Chung, K., & Hunt, M. (2002). The relation of patterns of coping of inner-city youth to psychopathology symptoms. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12(4), 423–449. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00040
Utsey, S. O., Giesbrecht, N., Hook, J., & Stanard, P. M. (2008). Cultural, sociofamilial, and psychological resources that inhibit psychological distress in African Americans exposed to stressful life events and race-related stress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.49
Voisin, D. R., & Kim, D. H. (2016). “Broken windows”: Relationship between neighborhood conditions and behavioral health among low-income African American adolescents. Journal of Health Psychology, 23(4), 527–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316681064
Wills, T. A., Murry, V. M., Brody, G. H., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Walker, C., & Ainette, M. G. (2007). Ethnic pride and self-control related to protective and risk factors: Test of the theoretical model for the strong African American families program. Health Psychology, 26(1), 50–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.26.1.50
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Skinner, E. A. (2011). Review: The development of coping across childhood and adolescence: An integrative review and critique of research. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025410384923
Zimmerman, G. M., & Messner, S. F. (2013). Individual, family background, and contextual explanations of racial and ethnic disparities in youths’ exposure to violence. American Journal of Public Health, 103(3), 435–442. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300931
Acknowledgements
We thank the adolescents who participated in this project, as well as their parents/guardians. We sincerely appreciate the collaboration of the participating schools and school-based health centers who supported this study. Clinical Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT0395445
Funding
Work was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [HD072293] and the National Institute of Mental Health [MH118382].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
This study was approved by the DePaul University Institutional Review Board and the school district’s Research Review Board. The study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Consent to Participate
Informed consent/assent was obtained from all participants in this study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Robinson, W.L., Whipple, C.R., Jason, L.A. et al. Social Support Coping for African American Adolescents: Effect of a Culturally Grounded Randomized Controlled Trial Intervention. Prev Sci 24, 715–727 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-022-01484-z
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-022-01484-z