Abstract
Background
The northern metalmark (Calephelis borealis), is an exceedingly local, globally rare butterfly that is declining across the Midwestern and Northeastern USA. The two principal stressors driving colony losses include afforestation and invasive plants that crowd out its larval hostplant (Packera ovata) and nectar resources.
Aims/methods
To better understand its declines and guide restoration efforts, we (1) performed a mark-recapture study in Connecticut to document population trends where we were actively managing vegetation; (2) conducted a range-wide survey for evidence of phylogeographic structure, using cytochrome oxidase (CO1); (3) investigated abundance determinants of its larval foodplant, Packera ovata; and (4) visited northern metalmark populations across the Northeastern USA to identify common edaphic, structural, and community elements of its colonies.
Results
We document that the species is increasing at a managed colony in Connecticut, where we opened the canopy, removed invasive plants, and added nectar resources. Common habitat attributes in the Northeastern USA include limestone soil, eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), and ecotonal woodland structure that allows its shade-loving, larval hostplant (Packera obovata) to be spatially proximate to sun-loving, nectar resources. Nectar limitation is hypothesized to be a driver of colony location and success.
Implications for insect conservation
Our results underscore how active plant management (canopy thinning, invasive plant removal, and the addition of nectar plants) was able to rescue an imperiled woodland butterfly, reinforce the increasingly recognized importance of nectar resources in butterfly conservation, and demonstrate how metapopulation structure can buffer against the vagaries of precipitation and other (increasingly variable) climatic factors.
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Data availability
Barcode sequences will be deposited in GenBank upon acceptance of this manuscript. Voucher specimens of the northern metalmark have been deposited at the University of Connecticut Insect Museum.
Code availability
Code for statistical analyses is available on GitHub (https://github.com/komland/NoMe). WJH, HAF, KSO, DLW contributed to writing; WJH designed plant sampling schema, collected field data, and carried out the mark-recapture study; KSO analyzed and visualized mark-recapture data; HAF analyzed vegetation data; DLW provided funding and oversight.
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Acknowledgements
We are much indebted to the many summer helpers that carried out the annual adult counts at Kent: Alex Meleg, Greg Hanisek, and Kevin Keegan prior to the initiation of the mark-recapture study. Major contributors to the daily mark-recapture censusing efforts beginning in 2016 included Rebecca Carden, Sam Erickson, Caitlin Garvey, Dan Hale, and Sabrina Strom. Cliff and Karen Foell housed and fed our crew for six years, which made much of what is presented here possible. Ken Metlzer, retired state plant community ecologist, provide considerable advice, historical plant plot data at Kent, and guidance relevant to the annual vegetation management efforts over all 13 years of our work. Richard Arnold, an authority on the Lange’s metalmark, assisted at many points over the course of the study. We also thank the colony stewards and state biologists who accompanied us to eight out-of-state (non-Connecticut) colonies: Laura Saucier (Connecticut), John Howard and Jim McCormack (Ohio), Jim Utter (New York), and Wade and Sharon Wander (New Jersey). Several biologists provided information on the current status of the northern metalmark in their states: Richard Boscoe, Loran Gibson, Phillip Koenig, Anthony McBride, Steve Roble, Jennifer Selfridge, John Shuey, Robert Somes, Jim Utter, Jim Vargo, Linda Williams, and David Wright. Specimens or legs for barcoding were supplied by Loran Gibson, John Howard, Phillip E. Koenig, Anthony McBride, Jim McCormack, Steve Roble, and Linda Williams. FirstLight Power Resources provided the financial support for the annual population monitoring and vegetation management efforts, with their land manager, Brian Wood facilitating and otherwise supporting our research activities. Two anonymous reviewers provided numerous helpful suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript. The Appalachian Trail Conservancy helped by supplying seasonal field technician time and coordinating vegetation management in partnership with the Appalachian Mountain Club Connecticut Chapter.
Funding
FirstLight Power Resources provided the financial support for the annual population monitoring and vegetation management efforts. The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection helped with support of summer interns, data analyses, and permitting. In 2018, WJH received a SURF (Summer Undergraduate Research Fund) grant from the University of Connecticut. DLW was supported by USFS Co-op Agreement 14-CA-11420004–138 and awards from the Richard P. Garmany Fund (Hartford Foundation). HAF was supported by funds from a Future Investigators in NASA Earth and Space Science and Technology (FINESST) grant award 80NSSC20K1659.
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The authors declare no conflicts of interests. Insect sampling in Connecticut was conducted under permitting from Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection.
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Henry, W.J., Omland, K.S., Frye, H.A. et al. Mark-recapture study and habitat assessment for the northern metalmark butterfly, Calephelis borealis (Lepidoptera: Riodinidae). J Insect Conserv 26, 163–174 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-022-00372-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-022-00372-9